Precis Writing

PRECIS WRITING
Precis (pray-see, pl. pray-seez) writing is a basic and very useful skill. It has been variously referred to as 'abbreviation',
'subtraction', 'abstract', 'summary', and 'condensation'. The French gave it the name 'precis' — the pruning away of all
that is inessential.
Definition:
"A precis is a brief, original summary of the important ideas given in a long selection. Its aim is to give the general
effect created by the original selection." It is a concise and lucid summary that forsakes all unnecessary details
(including illustrations, amplifications, and embellishments) in favor of reproducing the logic, development,
organization and emphasis of the original. Retaining the substance of a fuller statement, it seeks to articulate another
authors thoughts by extracting the maximum amount of information and carefully conveying it in a minimum number of
words.
The Purpose:
Precis writing aims at intelligent reading and clear, accurate writing. It is a skill of both analysis and genesis that
critically questions every thought included and excluded, each word used to express those thoughts, and the proportions
and arrangements of those thoughts — both in the original and in the precis. In its exaction it mercilessly reveals an
author's wordiness and looseness or thinness of thought and construction. It should strengthen our style, our sense of
proportion and emphasis, and our sensitivity to word meanings and an author's viewpoint,
Guide to a Successful Precis:
1. Understand the essential facts or dominating idea of the passage.
2. In your opening sentence express what the passage tends to show.
3. With as few sentences as possible enlarge on the essential shown in the opening sentence.
4. Summarize only what the author says; do not add your own opinions.
5. As far as possible, use your own words.
6. Ask whether the precis is clear to one who has not seen the original.
A precis is usually reduced to at least one-fourth of its original length and frequently much more. How long it is will
be determined by its purpose and by the nature of the original.
PRELIMINARY TO PRECIS WRITING:
1. An abstract is a condensation of a passage, the important words, phrases, and sentences containing the essential
thoughts being worked as simply as possible into sentences. It simply requires the ability to pick out essential facts.
Exercises in abstracting will involve underscoring the essential facts in a passage and combining them into a single
whole. (N.b.: Here 'abstract' is used in its narrow sense to mean a digest or running summary.)
2. A paraphrase is a restatement of a difficult passage, stating clearly and fully in language of the simplest sort just
what the passage means. Because it clarifies hidden meanings and obscure passages, it is usually longer than the
original." Precis writing involves the ability to paraphrase, but adds to it concision, all the while being careful to not to
lose or distort the original meaning Exercising in paraphrasing might involve transposing poetry to prose, explaining the
meaning of proverbs, etc.
3. In precis writing it is necessary to say as much as possible in as few words as possible." A word may substitute for a
phrase and a phrase for a clause. The concern is for the precise meaning or connotation of a word.
4. The proper use of the colon and semicolon in punctuation is an aid to good precis writing.
5. Generally a precis should be written in reported or indirect speech. This means a precis will be in third person, in
the past tense. Exercises will involve the change of direct speech to indirect speech.
6. A precis title must be cold and matter of fact, not attractive to the imaginative mind. It is a precis of the precis.
Ask of your precis:
1. Are the opening sentences brief and to the point? Which is best?
2. Which opening sentence tends to show best what the passage expresses?
3. Do the sentence following the opening sentence amplify the essentials shown in the opening sentence?
4. Which precis clarifies the author's best thoughts? Have additional thoughts been added?
5. Is the precis clear to one who has not seen the original?
METHOD:
“It will be well to remember the object of precis writing: a brief and clear summary — or precis — of what you have
first carefully read. No words, phrases, clauses, or sentences which are unessential to the thought of the selection, are
considered. Every unnecessary word is discarded until all that you have left is the thought, the dominating idea, of what
you have read. Then in your own words, give this thought as briefly and clearly as possible. Your sentences must be
carefully constructed. Do not omit any essential articles, prepositions, or conjunctions.”
First Reading:
1. Read every word slowly and carefully until you clearly understand the sense of the passage.
2. Look up all unfamiliar words, phrases, and allusions
3. Identify the dominating idea, the essential thought, of the passage. Ask if this idea were omitted, would the
fundamental meaning of the passage be changed?
4. Determine what emphasis and space to give the thought in each section; write a heading for each section.
Second Reading:
1. Underscore with a pencil the important facts containing the essential thoughts. This is a process of differentiation
between what is essential and what is not. Generally you will omit examples, illustrations, conversations, and
repetitions.
2. Reread your selections to see that they are wise and adequate.
3. Determine if your underscoring expresses the main ideas.
Final Reading:
Rapidly and intensely reread the origin, dwelling on the important facts selected for a precis.
First Copy:
1. Close the book/original.
2. Write a summary of the thoughts as you remember them.
3. Compare with the original and correct, asking:
Did you retain the logical order and development of these thoughts?
Did you emphasize the dominant thought or erroneously emphasize a minor thought?
Did you omit any necessary facts? names? dates? places?
Is your precis clear to one who has not seen the original?
Are your sentences clear and well-constructed?
Did you use third person and the past tense?
Did you punctuate and spell correctly?
Did you make any grammatical or rhetorical errors?
Final Copy:
1. Read your first copy through carefully.
2. Condense wherever you can, substituting single words for phrases and phrases for longer clauses.
3. Use only simple figures of speech.
4. Clearly and concisely express the essential points.
5. Reduce verbiage while still making the point and retaining some of the flavor and spirit of the original.
6. Be fair to the sentiments expressed, even if you don't agree with them.
7. Rewrite neatly.

Accelerated English Language Learning Strategies

While language is one of the most important products of human evolution, it uses only a few of the many skills and senses available to our minds.

Our brains evolved to interpret, code and store very complex stimuli such as images, colors, structures, sounds, smells, tastes, touch, positions, emotions and language. The "Theory of Multiple Intelligences" asserts that there are 8 types of intelligence: interpersonal, intrapersonal, logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic and naturalist.

In the traditional classroom environment most first and second language lessons always present in only one format - as words printed on a page with traditional instruction by grammar translation and rote memorization.

Accelerated English Learning language lessons attempts to correct this imbalance by including activities which allow for the activation of the other intelligences such as: sports which involve movement, use of colour on worksheets, creating songs and music, manipulation of objects with arts and crafts.

"Accelerated English Language Learning" is a very broad term in language education and encompasses many different strategies, procedures, techniques, methodologies and approaches.

Some "Accelerated English Language Learning" methods include: mind maps, reading to music, multiple intelligences theory, various memory techniques, mood music to influence the emotional and mental state of learners, learning environment setting, rhymes to aid learning, using patterns, neuro-linguistic programming and the use of activities, arts, crafts, sports and dramatic presentations.

One "Accelerated English Language Learning" strategy is the use of mnemonics as a memory tool. Mnemonics help students improve their memory. They help language students remember facts, order or the structure of information. The three fundamental building blocks of mnemonics are imagination, association and location.

Imagination is used to create and strengthen "word-image associations". The more vividly you imagine and visualize a situation, the more effectively the memory is stored for later access and use.

Association is the method by which you link items to be remembered to a way of remembering it. You can create associations by linking them using the same color, smell, shape, or feeling. You can create associations by placing them together, on top, merged, wrapped or interacting in a humourous fashion.

Location provides a context into which you can place information as a unit and a way of separating one mnemonic from another. For example, by setting one mnemonic in Toronto and another similar mnemonic with images of Vancouver, we can separate them with no danger of confusion. You can build the images and atmosphere of these cities into your mnemonics to strengthen the feeling of location.

Second language learning takes a lot of time and effort and motivation. Students who use the "Accelerated Learning" strategies and methods with the assistance of a professional tutor will learn more, save time, save money and enjoy English Language learning. 

Please share your stories, anecdotes and experiences like this one...

A Teacher's Story

True or not - who cares, How many times do we "misjudge" by appearance? 

Her name was Mrs. Thompson. As she stood in front of her 5th grade class on the very first day of school, she told the children a lie. Like most teachers, she looked at her students and said that she loved them all the same. But that was impossible, because there in the front row, slumped in his seat, was a little boy named Teddy Stoddard.

Mrs. Thompson had watched Teddy the year before and noticed that he didn't play well with the other children. His clothes were messy and that he constantly needed a bath. And Teddy could be unpleasant. It got to the point where Mrs. Thompson would actually take delight in marking his papers with a broad red pen, making bold X's and then putting a big "F" at the top of his papers.

At the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to review each child's past records and she put Teddy's off until last. However, when she reviewed his file, she was in for a surprise.

Teddy's first grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is a bright child with a ready laugh. He does his work neatly and has good manners...He is a joy to be around."

His second grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is an excellent student, well liked by his classmates, but he is troubled because his mother has a terminal illness and life at home is a struggle."

His third grade teacher wrote, "His mother's death had been hard on him. He tries to do his best, but his father doesn't show much interest and his home life will soon affect him if some steps aren't taken."

Teddy's fourth grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is withdrawn and doesn't show much interest in school. He doesn't have many friends and he sometimes sleeps in class."

By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and she was ashamed of herself. She felt even worse when her students brought her Christmas presents wrapped in beautiful ribbons and bright paper, except for Teddy's. His present was clumsily wrapped in the heavy, brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs.Thompson took pains to open it in the middle of the other presents.

Some of the children started to laugh when she found a rhinestone bracelet with some of the stones missing, and a bottle that was one quarter-full of perfume. But she stifled the children's laughter when she exclaimed how pretty the bracelet was, putting it on, and dabbing some of the perfume on her wrist.

Teddy Stoddard stayed after school that day just long enough to say, "Mrs. Thompson, today you smelled just like my Mother used to."

After the children left she cried for at least an hour. On that very day, she quit teaching reading, and writing, and arithmetic. Instead, she began to teach children.

Mrs. Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy. As she worked with him, his mind seemed to come alive. The more she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By the end of the year, Teddy had become one of the smartest children in the class and, despite her lie that she would love all the children the same, Teddy became one of her "teacher's pets."

A year later, she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling her that she was still the best teacher he ever had in his whole life. Six years went by before she got another note from Teddy. He then wrote that he had finished high school, third in his class, and she was still the best teacher he ever had in his whole life.

Four years after that, she got another letter, saying that while things had been tough at times, he'd stayed in school, had stuck with it, and would soon graduate from college with the highest of honors. He assured Mrs. Thompson that she was still the best and favorite teacher he ever had in his whole life.

Then four more years passed and yet another letter came. This time he explained that after he got his bachelor's degree, he decided to go a little further. The letter explained that she was still the best and favorite teacher he ever had. But now his name was a little longer the letter was signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, MD.

The story doesn't end there. You see, there was yet another letter that spring. Teddy said he'd met this girl and was going to be married. He explained that his father had died a couple of years ago and he was wondering if Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit in the place at the wedding that was usually reserved for the mother of the groom.

Of course, Mrs. Thompson did. And guess what? She wore that bracelet, the one with several rhinestones missing. And she made sure she was wearing the perfume that Teddy remembered his mother wearing on their last Christmas together.

They hugged each other, and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs.Thompson's ear, "Thank you Mrs. Thompson for believing in me. Thank you so much for making me feel important and showing me that I could make a difference."

Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said, "Teddy, you have it all wrong. You were the one who taught me that I could make a difference. I didn't know how to teach until I met you."

Remember - that wherever you go, and whatever you do, you will have the opportunity to touch and/or change a person's outlook. Please try to do it in a positive way.

Vocabulary for Canadian Social Studies

This is a glossary for Canadian social studies. Adult learners who are preparing for Canadian citizenship will find this to be a very useful resource. Social studies teachers can use this to build lesson plans on Canadian history and government.
Aboriginal peoples. The first inhabitants of Canada.

Absolute location. The location of a point on the earth's surface that can be expressed by a grid reference (e.g., by latitude and longitude).

Acadian. One of the early French settlers of Acadia, or a descendant of these settlers, especially one living in the Maritime provinces or in Louisiana, U.S.A.

Achievement levels. Brief descriptions of four different degrees of achievement of the provincial curriculum expectations for any given grade. Level 3, which is the "provincial standard", identifies a high level of achievement of the provincial expectations. Parents of students achieving at level 3 in a particular grade can be confident that their children will be prepared for work at the next grade. Level 1 identifies achievement that falls much below the provincial standard. Level 2 identifies achievement that approaches the standard. Level 4 identifies achievement that surpasses the standard.

Altitude. The height of something above a reference level, especially above sea level.

Canadarm. An arm-like electromechanical device, designed and built in Canada, used to retrieve and deploy objects in space.

Canadian identity. Distinguishing characteristics of Canada and its people.

Canadian Shield. A plateau region of Eastern Canada extending from the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River to the Arctic Ocean.

Capital (as an economic resource). One of the factors in the production of goods and services. Capital can be goods (e.g., factories and equipment, highways, communication systems) and/or money available to be invested to increase production and wealth.

Capital (town or city). The official seat of government in a political entity, such as a province or country.

Château Clique. A small group, mostly anglophone and mercantile, who occupied the chief public offices in Lower Canada during the early nineteenth century.

Chivalry. The medieval values and customs of knighthood; the positive qualities to be exemplified in the behavior of knights, such as bravery, courtesy, honour, and gallantry towards women.

Citizenship. The status of a citizen, with its attendant duties, rights, and responsibilities.

Civics. The study of the rights and duties of citizenship.

Climate graph. A graph that combines average monthly temperature and precipitation data for a particular place.

Coat of arms. An arrangement of bearings, usually depicted on a shield, that indicates ancestry or distinction.

Command economy. An economic system in which the government owns and controls all facets of the economy.

Confederation. The federal union of all of the Canadian provinces and territories.

Conscription. Compulsory enlistment of citizens for military service.

Constituency. The body of voters represented by an elected official.

Cordilleras. A chain of mountains, especially the principal mountain system of a continent (e.g., Rocky Mountains in North America).

Corn Laws. Laws in Great Britain that gave the colonies of British North America preferential trade treatment.

Culture. Learned behaviour of people, which includes their belief systems and languages, social relationships, institutions and organizations; and their material goods (i.e., food, clothing, buildings, tools, and machines).

Dendritic drainage pattern. Type of drainage that occurs when water flows into a river from various tributaries, which are in turn fed by smaller tributaries. The pattern that results resembles the shape of an apple tree.

Doric Club. A group of wealthy young English people in Montreal during the early nineteenth century.

Economic profile. A listing and rating of the economic resources of a region.

Economic resource. Any of land, labour, capital, or entrepreneurial ability; a factor necessary for the economic success of a region.

Economy. The system or range of economic activity in a country, region, or community.

Electors. Qualified voters in an election.

Emigration. The act of leaving one country or region to settle in another.

Entrepreneur. A person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a business venture.

Entrepreneurial ability (as an economic resource). One of the factors in the production of goods and services. An entrepreneur recognizes a business opportunity and is able to combine land, labour, and capital to take advantage of the opportunity and make a profit.

Equator. Latitude zero degrees; an imaginary line running east and west around the globe and dividing it into two equal parts.

Expectations. The knowledge and skills that students are expected to develop and to demonstrate in their class work, on tests, and in various other activities on which their achievement is assessed. The new Ontario curriculum for social studies, history, and geography identifies expectations for each grade from Grade 1 to Grade 8.

Family Compact. A small group who upheld their belief in British institutions through control of government and the judiciary in Upper Canada from the 1790s to the 1830s.

Fenians. Irish-Americans who were part of a secret revolutionary organization formed in 1857 and dedicated to the overthrow of British rule in Ireland. They conducted a series of raids across the border into Canada between 1866 and 1870.

Feudalism. The political and economic system of Europe from the ninth to about the fifteenth century, based on the holding of all land in fief or fee and the resulting relation of lord to vassal, and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture.

Fils de la Liberté. A group of young French Canadians in Montreal in the 1830s who directly opposed the Doric Club. Fleur-de-lis. A stylized three-petalled iris flower; it was used as the armorial emblem of the kings of France and appears on the flag and coat of arms of Quebec.

Flow resource. A resource that is neither renewable nor non-renewable, but must be used when and where it occurs or be lost (e.g., running water, wind, sunlight).

Globalization. The idea, popularized in the 1960s, that the entire world and its inhabitants are becoming one large community with interconnected needs and services.

Grid. A pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, which helps determine absolute location and assists in the analysis of distribution patterns.

Grist mill. A mill for grinding grain.

Gross domestic product (GDP). The total monetary value of goods and services produced in a country.

Gross national product (GNP). Gross domestic product adjusted to include the value of goods and services from other countries subsequently used in producing goods and services in the home country.

Governor General. In Canada, the resident representative of the Crown.

Intercolonial trade. Trade between the colonies in British North America during the nineteenth century.

Labour (as an economic resource). One of the factors in the production of goods and services. Labour is the collection of people employed within a region.

Legend. An explanatory description or key to features on a map or chart.

Legislature. An officially elected or otherwise selected body of people, such as the House of Commons or a provincial legislature, vested with the responsibility and power to make laws for a political unit.

Lieutenant Governor. In Canada, the representative of the monarch in a province, appointed by the federal government acting for the Crown.

Loyalists. Those in the American colonies who declared their loyalty to Britain before the conclusion of the American Revolution (1776-83) and emigrated elsewhere, the Maritimes and present-day Ontario and Quebec being common destinations.

Manifest Destiny. The nineteenth-century doctrine that the United States had the right and duty to expand throughout North America.

Manufacturing. Changing from original state by machine or by hand.

Market economy. An economic system in which individual producers own and determine the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Media works. Forms of communication that include written or spoken words, sound, and/or pictures, such as brochures, posters, magazines, newspapers, documentary films, videos, advertisements, cartoons, commercials, news reports, nature programs, and travelogues. Audio elements include speech, music, background sounds, sound effects, volume, silence, narration, pace, and sequence of sounds. Compositional elements include form (structure), theme, setting, atmosphere, and point of view. Visual elements include lighting, colour, images, size and type of lettering, size of images, sequence of images, symbols, graphics, camera angles, logos, speed of presentation, shape of design, credits, details of sponsorship, animation, and live action.

Medieval. Relating or belonging to the Middle Ages.

Metis. A person of mixed Aboriginal and European ancestry, especially a person of mixed Aboriginal and French ancestry.

Mixed economy. An economic system which uses aspects of more than one of the three basic types of economic systems (subsistence, command, and market).

Multiculturalism. The preservation of distinct cultural identities among varied groups within a unified society.

Natural resources. Something found in nature that people find useful.

Nobel Peace Prize. One of six international prizes awarded annually by the Nobel Foundation for outstanding achievements.

Non-renewable resource. A finite resource that cannot be replaced once it is used up (e.g., petroleum, minerals).

North American Free Trade Agreement. A trade agreement signed by Canada, the United States, and Mexico.

Opinion. A belief or conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof.

Opposition. In a parliamentary government, the principal party opposed to the party in power.

Parliament Buildings. The buildings in Ottawa where the Canadian Parliament meets.

Parties (political). Established political groups organized to promote and support principles and candidates for public office.

Patriot. One who loves, supports, and defends one's country.

Physical feature. An aspect of a place or area that derives from the physical environment.

Polar regions. The various lands and waters surrounding the North Pole and the South Pole.

Political deadlock. Inability to make decisions because of the disagreement of an equal number of voters.

Population density. The number of individuals occupying an area; calculated by dividing the number of people by the area they occupy.

Premier. The head of the government of a province of Canada.

Primary industries (resource industries). Industries that harvest raw materials or natural resources (e.g., agriculture, ranching, forestry, fishing, extraction of minerals and ores).

Primary sources. Artifacts, and oral, print, media, or computer materials that are the earliest or first of a kind.

Pull factors. In migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental attractions of new areas that draw people away from their previous locations.

Push factors. In migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental forces that drive people from their previous locations to search for new ones.

Reciprocity. A mutual or cooperative interchange of favours or privileges (e.g., the exchange of trade privileges between nations).

Relative location. The location of a place or region in relation to other places or regions (e.g., northwest or downstream).

Renewable resource. A resource that can be regenerated if used carefully (e.g., fish, timber).

Responsible government. A system of government in which the cabinet or executive branch is responsible to the wishes of an elected legislature.

Riding. The legislative district represented by a member of Parliament or a member of a provincial legislature.

Rights. Prerogatives and privileges of being a citizen.

Rupert's Land. An historical region of Canada consisting of all the land in the Hudson Bay drainage system, including part of present-day Northwest Territories, most of the present-day Prairie provinces, and present-day northern Ontario and Quebec. The land was granted to the Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II in 1670 and sold to Canada in 1870.

St. Lawrence lowlands. An area along the St. Lawrence River that is low in relation to the surrounding country. The region is often referred to as the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence lowlands.

Scale. On maps, the relationship or ratio between a linear measurement on a map and the corresponding distance on the earth's surface.

Secondary industries (manufacturing industries). Industries that convert raw materials into finished industrial products (e.g., car manufacturing).

Secondary sources. Oral, print, media, and computer materials that are not primary or original.

Seigneurial system. A system in New France in which land was granted to nobles, the Church, and military and civil officers.

Stereotype. A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception or image.

Stewardship. Helpfulness; willingness to take charge.

Strands. The two major areas of knowledge and skills into which the curriculum for social studies for Grades 1-6 is organized. The strands are: Heritage and Citizenship, and Canada and World Connections.

Subsistence economy. An economic system in which there is little market exchange.

Suffrage. The right or privilege of voting; franchise.

Surplus. A trade position in which a country or region exports more than it imports.

Sustainable development. Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

Technology. The application of knowledge to meet the goals, goods, and services desired by people.

Tertiary industries (service industries). Industries that provide services (e.g., banking, retailing, education). Traditions. Elements of a culture passed down from generation to generation.

United Nations. An international organization formed in 1945 to promote peace and economic development.

Urbanization. A process in which there is an increase in the percentage of people living and/or working in urban places as compared to rural places.

Writing Resumes That Get Results

English Language Vocabulary for Resumes

Introductions to Resumes

A resume is a tool with one specific purpose

A resume is a sales document designed for a very precise audience.

A resume is a one or two page summary of your education, skills, accomplishments, and experience.

A very good resume is placed in the short list that survives the first cut.

An excellent resume convinces the employer that you have what it takes to be successful in the position or career.

A superb resume motivates the employer to pick up the phone and ask you to come in for an interview.
Types of Resumes

The chronological resume focuses on the experience section of the resume; each job is listed and described in some detail with sections of skills or accomplishments later in the resume.

The functional resume begins with highlights of major skills and accomplishments and focuses attention on what you can do for them.

A combined resume includes elements of both the chronological and functional formats.
Sections of Resumes

The Summary is sometimes labelled as a profile. - This should be four to six lines of text. This section should indicate the position you are looking for, experience and abilities that will be of interest to your next employer.

Career Summary also called your job history starts with your most recent job and lists backwards in time. Basic career summaries only include the year you started, the year you finished, job title and employer's name.

Career overviews includes job history, brief overview of the companies and responsibilities for each position that you have held.

Achievement differentiates you from anyone else doing your job because what you actually achieved will be a indication of performance.

Education or Academic Qualifications should include recent relevant training.

Personal Details includes your date of birth, marital status, driving licence, languages, volunteer and community groups and interests.

If you need help with resume writing and job interview skills - go to the ESL Teachers and tutor pages.

Teaching Students and Adult Learners to Write Effective Business Letters

English Language Vocabulary for Business Letters

attachment: extra document or image that is added to an email

block format: most common business letter format, single spaced, all paragraphs begin at the left margin

body: the content of the letter; between the salutation and signature

bullets: dots used to set off items in an unnumbered list

certified mail: sender pays extra postage in order to receive a notice of receipt

coherent: logical and easy to understand

concise: summary illustrates points quickly

confidential: for personal or specific company use only

diplomacy: demonstrating consideration and kindness

double space format: one blank line is left between lines of text

enclosure: extra document, pages or image included with a letter

formal style: set formatting and business language, opposite of casual

format: the organization of the letter

heading: a word or phrase that indicates what the text below will be about

indent: 1 tab or 5 extra spaces at the beginning of a paragraph

informal: casual formatting and business language, opposite of formal

inside address: recipient's mailing information

justified margins: straight and even text, always begins at the same place

letterhead: specialized paper with a company logo, name and address printed at the top

logo: symbol or image that identifies a specific organization

margin: a blank space that borders the edge of the text

memorandum: (memo) internal document sent within a company

modified block format: left justified as block format, but date and closing are centered

on arrival notation: notice to recipient that appears on an envelope (ie. "rush")

postage: the cost of sending a letter through the Post Office

proofread: read through a finished document to check for mistakes

recipient: the person who receives the letter

salutation: the greeting in a business letter (e.g. "Dear Mr Jones")

semi-block format: paragraphs are indented, not left-justified

single spaced format where no blanks lines are left in-between lines of text

spacing blank area between words or lines of text

tone: the feeling created by the language 

A History of English Grammar Instruction

Grammar has long been regarded as the result of centuries of logical improvements in the systematic organization of language. Grammar has been held up as one of the defining criteria elevating mankind above mere animals.

Begun by well meaning researchers looking to improve mankind, Prescriptive Grammar and the rote drills to perfection became a practice to be ridiculed, ignored and then discarded.

In the 1920s and 1930s, two great promoters of the descriptive linguistics tradition, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield, both wrote influential books that elevated the primacy of speech over writing and the importance of a descriptive approach to language study.

The publication of Syntactic Structures in 1957 by Noam Chomsky of MIT began a revolution in linguistics. This began the on-going widespread belief that language acquisition is considered an autonomic process dependent upon unconscious interactions between an innate, internal language acquisition device and the quality of the raw input material of the child's linguistic environment.

Chomsky's "Naturalist Theory" core premise was that in order for children to be able to learn a spoken language with such rapidity and thoroughness, children must be born with large portions of the universal grammar of language already hardwired into their head.

By the 1980's these Naturalist theories and subsequent transformational-generative grammar additions gained momentum and pushed regulators, education faculties, teacher trainers, educators and textbook editors to eliminate traditional grammar instruction.

It is unfortunate that Chomsky was only right about initial language acquisition.

Babies are born with an excess of neural connections, many of which are lost through lack of use over time. Beginning at about the age of nine or ten and continuing until kids are around the age of fourteen, the internal mechanisms for intuiting syntactic, phonological, and morphological structures start breaking down.

Education theory promoters need to stop preaching the half-truth that grammar develops naturally through simple exposure to language. They need to admit that the internal language-learning mechanism is imperfect and that this ability degrades as students age.

It is interesting to note that some USA states have used 1930's Grade 6 English tests as a benchmark to show that most of the 1990's and 21st century first year college students could not even pass. Historical comparisons have revealed that education tests and standards have been deliberately reduced to disguise the failures of the public English education curriculum.

The second challenge is the elementary school students who had not formally learned English grammar are now teaching English. Many of these teachers have never been exposed to the traditional grammar books of the 1940s and '50s, so cannot explain many of the rudimentary grammatical forms.

These facts should provide language program designers with clear road maps. Program designers have to recognize that they have a window of opportunity in which to expose students to syntactically rich language. Educators should prioritize technical grammar learning early and often.

Teachers must recognize that older students will not learn grammar simply by reading and writing. Teachers must correct grammatical errors that students have acquired during their early years. For older students language learning is not autonomic. Grammar structures and mechanics have to be explicitly taught.